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Sex Education sa High School sa Pilipinas: Bakit ito Mahalaga?
Ang sexuality education ay isang mataas na kalidad ng instruksyon at pagkatuto tungo sa malawak na saklaw ng mga paksa na konektado sa sex at sekswalidad. Ginagalugod nito ang mga pagpapahalaga at pananaw na sangkot sa mga isyung ito. Ang sexuality education ay nagbibigay rin ng mga kasanayang kailangan para sa maayos na pamamahala ng mga personal na ugnayan at maprotektahan ang kagalingang sekswal ng isang indibidwal. Narito ang dapat mong malaman tungkol sa sex education sa high school sa Pilipinas.
Kabilang sa mga paksang kasangkot sa comprehensive sexual education (CSE) ay ang sumusunod:
- Human Sexual Anatomy
- Sekswal na Aktibidad
- Sekswal na Reproduksyon
- Edad ng Consent
- Ligtas na Pagtatalik
- Contraceptives
- Reproductive Health
- Reproductive Rights
- Sekswal na Abstinence
Sex Education sa High School sa Pilipinas: Sa Lehislatura
Ang Responsible Parenthood at Reproductive Health Act ng 2012 ay naipasa bilang batas upang palawakin ang sexuality education sa mga high school sa Pilipinas. Nais din nitong makapag-garantiya ng panlahat na akses sa mga metodo ng kontrasepsyon, fertility control, at maternal care.
Ang pagkakapasa ng batas ay lumikha ng kontrobersya dahil sa hating pananaw mula sa mga akademya at relihiyosong institusyon. Dahil dito, ipinagpaliban ng Korte Suprema ang implementasyon ng batas hanggang sa 2014 kung kailan ito idineklarang konstitusyunal. Ito ay matapos tanggalin ang bahagi o kabuoan ng 8 probisyon.
Mga Konsiderasyong Kultural
Ang pangangailangan para sa mas mainam na sexuality education sa bansa ay masasalamin sa mataas na antas ng maagang pagbubuntis. Naitala ng 2013 National Demographic and Health Survey na 8% ng mga kababaihang Pilipino sa pagitan ng edad 15 hanggang 19 ay mga ganap nang ina. Ang dagdag na 2% ay buntis sa kanilang unang anak.
Nalaman din ng isang pag-aaral mula sa Woman Health Philippines na maraming mga dalaga ang nag-iisip na ang pakikipagtalik ay ang tanging paraan ng pagpapadama ng pag-ibig. Maraming mga Pilipinong kababaihan ang umiiwas sa mga serbisyo para sa reproductive health dahil sa takot na husgahan ng lipunan.
Sa kadahilanang ang Pilipinas ay isang konserbatibo at relihiyosong bansa, maraming mga pagtuligsa para sa pagpapatupad ng sexuality education.
Ang mga dalaga at binata sa mga bansang may kahawig na kultura ay hindi nabibigyan ng tamang pagpapaliwanag na may kinalaman sa kanilang mga isyu sa sekswalidad. Ito ay dahil ang mga ganitong paksa ay nakikita bilang mga taboo.
Ang Sekswal na Edukasyon at Ang Simbahang Katoliko
Maraming mga Pilipino ang miyembro ng Simabahang Katoliko, na siyang nagpapasubali ng mga ugnayang sekswal bago ang kasal. Gayunpaman, hindi napahinto ng pagsesermon at panghihikayat ng abstinence ay palagiang pagtaas ng antas ng maagang pagbubuntis.
Naitala rin ng Philippine Statistics Authority na sangkatlo (⅓) ng mga kabataang Pilipino ay nakapagtalik na bago ang kasal. Marami sa kanila ang hindi gumagamit ng proteksyon.
Karagdagan pa, malaking bahagdan ng populasyon ang namumuhay sa kahirapan. Malaking bahagdan ng mga taong ito ay ang mga kabataang magkakapareha na may mababang antas ng kaalaman ukol sa ligtas na pagtatalik.
Sex Education sa High School
May nosyon na ang sexual education ay hindi dapat gawing sapilitan sa mga paaralan. Sa kabila nito, ang mga binata’t dalaga ay masasangkot pa rin sa mga sekswal na gawi meron man o walang oryentasyon. Ito ay maaaring magdulot ng mga sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), hindi inaasahang pagbubuntis, at sa paglaon, ay mababang kalidad ng buhay.
Gaya ng kung paanong posible ang mga ito sa mga bansang gaya ng New Zealand, ang counseling para sa mga relasyong non-sexual ay dapat na magsimula sa mga maagang yugto ng pag-aaral. Ang sexuality education sa Pilipinas ay dapat na simulan sa Junior High School.
Epekto ng Sexuality Education sa Sekswal na Paggawi ng mga Kabataan
Napatunayan ng mga pag-aaral na ang sexual education ay nakatutulong para maiwasan ang maagang pagtatalik. Ang mga tinedyer ay nakakukuha pa rin naman ng impormasyon ukol sa pakikipagtalik, itinuturo man sa kanila ito o hindi. Maaari silang mahantad sa mga sekswal na kagamitan o kaalaman sa pamamagitan ng internet at ng kanilang mga kaibigan. Ang mga impormasyon na maaaring makuha sa mga sangguniang ito ay maaaring kulang o nakapagdududa, na nagbubunsod ng mga hindi gaanong napag-isipang pagpili.
Ang United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) ay nakapag-ulat na ang makatotohanan, angkop sa kultura, angkop sa edad, gender-sensitive, at komprehensibong sexual education ay nakapag-aalis ng mapanganib na paggawi sa mga aktibong nagbibinata’t nagdadalaga at mga batang adulto. Kapag maayos na naihatid ang komprehensibong sekswal na edukasyon, napakikilos nito ang mga kabataan na gumawa ng napagplanuhang desisyon.
Maraming mga kabataan ang nakatatanggap ng mga nagbabanggaan at nakalilitong mga impormasyon na may kinalaman sa sekswalidad at mga ugnayan. Ang kakulangang ito ay nagbunga ng pangangailangan sa kaparaanan kung saan maaari silang makakuha ng mapagkakatiwalaang impormasyon.
Kahalagahan ng Makalidad na Sex Education
Salungat sa mga karaniwang miskonsepsyon, ang sekswal na edukasyon ay hindi nagpapataas ng mga sekswal na aktibidad sa loob o labas ng paaralan. Hindi rin ito nakapagbubunga ng mapanganib na paggawi o pagtaas ng kaso ng HIV o iba pang sexually transmitted infections. Sa halip, nakapagpapaunlad ito sa kaalaman ng mga kabataan kung saan ang kanilang sekswal at reproductive na kalusugan ay mahalaga. Sa kabilang banda, ang mga programang nanghihikayat ng abstinence bilang tanging opsyon ay hindi naging epektibo sa pagpapaliban ng mga sekswal na aktibidad ng mga kabataan. Hindi rin napawala ng mga ito ang dalas o dami ng mga sekswal na kapareha nila.
Tandaan
Ang pakikipagtalik ay isang normal na bahagi ng buhay. Sa karamihan ng mga tao, ito ay nangyayari sa panahon ng pagdadalaga at pagbibinata at ng pagiging batang adulto. Talamak sa Pilipinas ang hindi makalidad na impormasyon tungkol sa pagtatalik dahil sa panrelihiyon at kultural na mga salik.
Ang sex education sa high school sa Pilipinas ay naghahanda sa mga kabataan para sa kasiya-siyang gawain na ito na maaari ding magdulot ng mga seryosong epekto sa kanila. Ang pagpapasulong sa mga kabataan sa pagsasagawa ng mga ligtas na gawaing sekswal at pag-unawa sa mga epekto nito sa kanilang mga sekswal na pangangailangan ay nagdudulot sa kanila ng kagalingang sekswal.
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On This Post:
- What Is Qualitative Research?
- Qualitative Methods
- Examples
- Qualitative Data Analysis
- Key Features
- Limitations of Qualitative Research
- Advantages of Qualitative Research
- What Is Quantitative Research?
- Quantitative Methods
- Examples
- Quantitative Data Analysis
- Key Features
- Limitations of Quantitative Research
- Advantages of Quantitative Research
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?
The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.
Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.
Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.
Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.
What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.
Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.
Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)
Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner).
Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human. Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism).
Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.
Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.
Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.
Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.
Qualitative Methods
There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews, documents, focus groups, case study research, and ethnography.
The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.
The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)
Examples
Here are some examples of qualitative data:
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Interview transcripts: Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.
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Observations: The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.
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Unstructured interviews: generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
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Diaries or journals: Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.
Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.
Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis.
For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded.
Key Features
- Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
- Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
- The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
- The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
- The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.
Limitations of Qualitative Research
- Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
- The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
- Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
- The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.
Advantages of Qualitative Research
- Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
- Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
- Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
- Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.
What Is Quantitative Research?
Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.
The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables, make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.
Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
Quantitative Methods
Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things. However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires, can produce both quantitative information.
For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).
Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.
Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.
Examples
There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:
- Standardized psychological assessments: One example of a standardized psychological assessment of IQ that uses quantitative data is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles.
The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.
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Neuroimaging data: Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.
This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.
- Clinical outcome measures: The use of clinical outcome measures provides objective, standardized data that can be used to assess treatment effectiveness and monitor symptoms over time, helping mental health professionals make informed decisions about treatment and care.
For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.
The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.
Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).
Key Features
- Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
- The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
- The design of the study is determined before it begins.
- For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
- Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
Limitations of Quantitative Research
- Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
- Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
- Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
- Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.
Advantages of Quantitative Research
- Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
- Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
- Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
- Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
- Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).
References
Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS. Sage.
Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics. Sage.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research: what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4), 716-721.
Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.
Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.
Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4), 364.
Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.
Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage
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There are two distinct types of data collection and study: qualitative and quantitative. Although both provide an analysis of data, they differ in their approach and the type of data they collect. Awareness of these approaches can help researchers construct their study and data collection methods.
Topics:
- What Is the Difference Between Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research?
- Qualitative vs. Quantitative Outcomes
- Benefits and Limitations of Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
- How To Analyze Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
- Become a Qualitative or Quantitative Researcher
What Is the Difference Between Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research?
Because qualitative and quantitative studies collect different types of data, their data collection methods differ considerably. Quantitative studies rely on numerical or measurable data. In contrast, qualitative studies rely on personal accounts or documents that illustrate in detail how people think or respond within society.
Qualitative Research: Data Collection for Your Doctorate Degree
Qualitative research methods include gathering and interpreting non-numerical data. The following are some sources of qualitative data1:
- Interviews
- Focus groups
- Documents
- Personal accounts or papers
- Cultural records
- Observation
In the course of a qualitative study, the researcher may conduct interviews or focus groups to collect data that is not available in existing documents or records. To allow freedom for varied or unexpected answers, interviews and focus groups may be unstructured or semi-structured.
An unstructured or semi-structured format allows the researcher to pose open-ended questions and follow wherever the responses lead. The responses provide a comprehensive perspective on each individual’s experiences, which are then compared with those of other participants in the study.
Quantitative Research: Data Collection for Your Degree
Quantitative studies, in contrast, require different data collection methods. These methods include compiling numerical data to test causal relationships among variables. Some forms of data collection for this type of study include1:
- Experiments
- Questionnaires
- Surveys
- Database reports
The above collection methods yield data that lends itself to numerical analysis. Questionnaires in this case have a multiple-choice format to generate countable answers, such as “yes” or “no,” which can be turned into quantifiable data.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Outcomes
One of the factors distinguishing qualitative from quantitative studies is the nature of the intended outcome. Qualitative researchers seek to learn from details of the testimonies of those they are studying. Over the course of a study, conclusions are drawn by compiling, comparing and evaluating the participants’ feedback and input. Qualitative research is often focused on answering the “why” behind a phenomenon, correlation or behavior.
In contrast, quantitative data are analyzed numerically to develop a statistical picture of a trend or connection. Such statistical results may shed light on cause-and-effect relationships, and they may either confirm or disprove the study’s original hypothesis. Whether positive or negative, the outcome can enrich understanding of a subject and spark action. Quantitative research is often focused on answering the questions of “what” or “how” in regards to a phenomenon, correlation or behavior.
Benefits and Limitations of Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Another difference between qualitative and quantitative research lies in their advantages and limitations. Each form of research has benefits and shortcomings. Researchers must consider their hypotheses and what forms of data collection and analysis are likely to produce the most relevant findings.
Benefits of Qualitative Research
There are some significant benefits of qualitative research that should be considered when evaluating the difference between qualitative and quantitative research. The qualitative method allows for creativity, varied interpretations and flexibility. The scope of the research project can change as more information is gathered.
Limitations of Qualitative Research
Qualitative studies are more subjective in their results and interpretation than are quantitative studies. The expertise and perspective of the researcher may strongly influence the interpretation of results and the conclusions reached, because personal bias can be hard to manage. In addition, qualitative studies often test a smaller sample size due to the costs and efforts associated with qualitative data collection methods.1
Benefits of Quantitative Research
The similarities of qualitative and quantitative research do not encompass their respective benefits, because each approach has unique advantages. For example, unlike qualitative studies, quantitative studies produce objective data, and their results can be clearly communicated through statistics and numbers. Quantitative studies can be quickly analyzed with the benefit of data computing software.
Limitations of Quantitative Research
Yet, although objectivity is a benefit of the quantitative method, this approach can be viewed as a more restrictive form of study. Participants cannot tailor their responses or add context. Furthermore, statistical analysis requires a large data sample, which calls for a large pool of participants.1
How To Analyze Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
Another of the similarities of qualitative and quantitative research is that both look for patterns in the data they collect that point to a relationship between elements. Both qualitative and quantitative data are instrumental in supporting existing theories and developing new ones. Ultimately, the researcher must determine which kind of research best serves the goals of their study.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Because qualitative data doesn’t allow for numerical data analysis, any analytical approach must be developed with care and caution. Here are a few different methods of qualitative data analysis, as follows:
- Content analysis: Groups together similar concepts, themes and words that emerge from the data in order to understand interrelationships
- Discourse analysis: Evaluates the way in which people often express themselves in various contexts through the lens of cultural and power dynamics
- Thematic analysis: Seeks to understand the true meaning behind subjects’ words by uncovering recurrent themes in the data
Analyzing Quantitative Data
The question of how to analyze quantitative data is slightly more straightforward compared to the various approaches for qualitative data. When working with quantitative data, doctoral researchers will generally review the collected data and organize it into visual elements, such as charts and graphs.
The data can be evaluated using either descriptive or inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics provide an avenue for describing the population or data set. Inferential statistics can be used to generalize results, as well as to project future trends or predictions about a larger dataset or population.
Become a Qualitative or Quantitative Researcher
Some researchers choose to adhere to and hone a single methodological approach throughout their time as doctoral learners — or in their profession. Research skills are critical in a variety of careers.
If you have a desire to conduct research, a qualitative or quantitative doctoral degree can support your initiative. Throughout your program, you will learn methods for constructing a qualitative or quantitative study and producing written research findings.
1 Mcleod, S. (2023, May 10). Qualitative vs quantitative research: methods & data analysis. Simply Psychology. Retrieved in May 2023.
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What Is a Short Story?
A short story is a work of short, narrative prose that is usually centered around one single event. It is limited in scope and has an introduction, body and conclusion. Although a short story has much in common with a novel (See How to Analyze a Novel), it is written with much greater precision. You will often be asked to write a literary analysis. An analysis of a short story requires basic knowledge of literary elements. The following guide and questions may help you:
Setting
Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place. In a short story there are fewer settings compared to a novel. The time is more limited. Ask yourself the following questions:
- How is the setting created? Consider geography, weather, time of day, social conditions, etc.
- What role does setting play in the story? Is it an important part of the plot or theme? Or is it just a backdrop against which the action takes place?
Study the time period, which is also part of the setting, and ask yourself the following:
- When was the story written?
- Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future?
- How does the time period affect the language, atmosphere or social circumstances of the short story?
Characterization
Characterization deals with how the characters in the story are described. In short stories there are usually fewer characters compared to a novel. They usually focus on one central character or protagonist. Ask yourself the following:
- Who is the main character?
- Are the main character and other characters described through dialogue – by the way they speak (dialect or slang for instance)?
- Has the author described the characters by physical appearance, thoughts and feelings, and interaction (the way they act towards others)?
- Are they static/flat characters who do not change?
- Are they dynamic/round characters who DO change?
- What type of characters are they? What qualities stand out? Are they stereotypes?
- Are the characters believable?
Plot and structure
The plot is the main sequence of events that make up the story. In short stories the plot is usually centered around one experience or significant moment. Consider the following questions:
- What is the most important event?
- How is the plot structured? Is it linear, chronological or does it move around?
- Is the plot believable?
Narrator and Point of view
The narrator is the person telling the story. Consider this question: Are the narrator and the main character the same?
By point of view we mean from whose eyes the story is being told. Short stories tend to be told through one character's point of view. The following are important questions to consider:
- Who is the narrator or speaker in the story?
- Does the author speak through the main character?
- Is the story written in the first person "I" point of view?
- Is the story written in a detached third person "he/she" point of view?
- Is there an "all-knowing" third person who can reveal what all the characters are thinking and doing at all times and in all places?
Conflict
Conflict or tension is usually the heart of the short story and is related to the main character. In a short story there is usually one main struggle.
- How would you describe the main conflict?
- Is it an internal conflict within the character?
- Is it an external conflict caused by the surroundings or environment the main character finds himself/herself in?
Climax
The climax is the point of greatest tension or intensity in the short story. It can also be the point where events take a major turn as the story races towards its conclusion. Ask yourself:
- Is there a turning point in the story?
- When does the climax take place?
Theme
The theme is the main idea, lesson, or message in the short story. It may be an abstract idea about the human condition, society, or life. Ask yourself:
- How is the theme expressed?
- Are any elements repeated and therefore suggest a theme?
- Is there more than one theme?
Style
The author's style has to do with the his or her vocabulary, use of imagery, tone, or the feeling of the story. It has to do with the author's attitude toward the subject. In some short stories the tone can be ironic, humorous, cold, or dramatic.
- Is the author's language full of figurative language?
- What images are used?
- Does the author use a lot of symbolism? Metaphors (comparisons that do not use "as" or "like") or similes (comparisons that use "as" or "like")?
Your literary analysis of a short story will often be in the form of an essay where you may be asked to give your opinions of the short story at the end. Choose the elements that made the greatest impression on you. Point out which character/characters you liked best or least and always support your arguments.
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As with the classification systems of genres and text types, the approaches to literary texts are characterized by a number of divergent methodologies. The following sections show that literary interpretations always reflect a particular institutional, cultural, and historical background. This classification inevitably results in a drastic reduction of highly complex theories to their most basic patterns.
1. TEXT-ORIENTED APPROACHES
The text-oriented approach is primarily concerned with questions of the “materiality” of texts, including editions of manuscripts, analyses of language and style, and the formal structure of literary works. Author-oriented schools put the main emphasis on the author, trying to establish connections between the work of art and the biography of its creator. Text-oriented traditions, however, center on the text primarily investigating its formal or structural features.
A. Philology
In literary criticism, the term philology generally denotes approaches which focus on editorial problems and the reconstruction of texts. The materiality of texts, a major concern of traditional philology, is still relevant to today’s literary scholarship, as illustrated by the debate concerning the reliability of the generally accepted edition of James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922).
B. Rhetoric and stylistics
Together with theology and grammar, rhetoric remained the dominant textual discipline for almost two thousand years. Since ancient Greco-Roman culture treasured public speech, rhetoric compiled a number of rules and techniques for efficient composition and powerful oratory. It offered guidelines for every phase of textual composition including inventio (selection of themes), dispositio (organization of material), elocutio (verbalization with the help of rhetorical figures), memoria (the technique of remembering the speech), and actio (delivery of the speech).
In the nineteenth century, rhetoric eventually lost its influence and partially developed into stylistics, a field whose methodology was adopted by literary criticism and art history as well. With the aim of describing stylistic idiosyncrasies of individual authors, entire nations, or whole periods, stylistics focused on grammatical structures (lexis, syntax), acoustic elements (melody, rhyme, meter, rhythm), and over-arching forms (rhetorical figures) in its analyses of texts.
C. Formalism and structuralism
The terms formalism and structuralism encompass a number of schools in the first half of the twentieth century whose main goal lies in the explication of the formal and structural patterns of literary texts. This emphasis on the intrinsic and structural aspects of a literarywork deliberately distinguished itself from older traditions—above all the biographical literary criticism of the nineteenth century—which were primarily concerned with extrinsic or extra-textual features intheir analysis of literature.
D. New criticism
Largely independent of European formalism and structuralism, new criticism established itself as the dominant school of literary criticism in the English-speaking academic community during the 1930s and 1940s. New criticism objects toevaluative critique, source studies, investigations of sociohistoricalback-ground, and the history of motifs; it also counters authorcentered biographical or psychological approaches as well as thehistory of reception. Its main concern is to free literary criticism of extrinsic factors and thereby shift the center of attention to the literary text itself.
E. Semiotics and deconstruction
Semiotics and deconstruction are the most recent trends in textoriented literary theory of the 1970s and 1980s, which regards a text as a system of signs.
Semiotics and deconstruction use the verbal sign or signifier as the starting point of their analyses, arguing that nothing exists outside the text, i.e., that our perception of the world is of a textual nature. A new and unconventional aspect of semiotics and deconstruction is their attempt to extend the traditional notion of textuality to nonliterary or nonlinguistic sign systems.
Like semiotics, deconstruction also highlights the building-block character of texts whose elements consist of signs. This poststructuralist method of analysis starts with the assumption that a text can be analyzed (destructed) and put together (constructed).
2. AUTHOR-ORIENTED APPROACHES
This author-oriented approach established a direct link between the literary text and the biography of the author. Dates, facts, and events in an author’s life are juxtaposed with literary elements of his or her works in order to find aspects which connect the biography of the author with the text.
Autobiographies are obviously suitable for this kind of approach, which compares the fictional portrayal with the facts and figures from the author’s life. In many cases, autobiographical material enters the fictional text in codes.
Author-centered approaches focus also on aspects which might have entered the text on a subconscious or involuntary level. The fact that Mary Shelley had a miscarriage during the period in which she wrote her novel Frankenstein (1818) can be related directly to the plot. According to the author-centered approaches, the central theme of the novel, the creation of an artificial human being, can be traced back to Mary Shelley’s intense psychological occupation with the issue of birth at the time.
3. READER-ORIENTED APPROACHES
A reader-oriented approach developed in the 1960s called reception theory, reader-response theory, or aesthetics of reception. All three terms are used almost synonymously to summarize those approaches which focus on the reader’s point of view. Some of these approaches do not postulate a single objective text, but rather assume that there are as many texts as readers. Reader-centered approaches examine the readership of a text and investigate why, where, and when it is read. They also examine certain reading practices of social, ethnic, or national groups. Many of these investigations also deal with and try to explain the physiological aspect of the actual reading process. They aim at revealing certain mechanisms which are employed in the transformation of the visual signs on paper into a coherent, meaningful text in the mind of the reader. These approaches assume that a text creates certain expectations in the reader in every phase of reading.
Expectations are at the basis of text interpretation on every level of the reading process, from the deciphering of a single word or sentence to the analysis of thematic structures of texts. Reception theory, therefore, shifts the focus from the text to the interaction between reader and text. It argues that the interpretation of texts cannot and must not be detached from the reading individual. A further aspect which is closely connected with this movement is the investigation of the reception of texts by a particular readership.
In reception history sales figures are examined together with reviews in newspapers and magazines. These analyses can either look at the reception of texts in one particular period (synchronic analysis) or trace changes and developments in the reception of texts in literary history (diachronic analysis). The reader-centered approaches of reception theory and reception history, particularly influential in the 1970s as reactions to the THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO LITERATURE 93 dogmas of new criticism, were pushed into the background in the 1980s by text-oriented semiotics and deconstruction as well as by a variety of context-centered schools.
4. CONTEXT-ORIENTED APPROACHES
The term context-oriented approaches refers here to a heterogeneous group of schools and methodologies which do not regard literary texts as self-contained, independent works of art but try to place them within a larger context. Depending on the movement, this context can be history, social and political background, literary genre, nationality, or gender. The most influential movement to this day is literary history, which divides literary phenomena into periods, describes the text with respect to its historical background, dates texts and examines their mutual influence. This movement is associated with the discipline of history and is guided by historical methodology. The entire notion of literary history has become so familiar to us that it is difficult to distinguish it as an approach at all. This historically informed methodology which organizes literary works in a variety of categories is, of course, as arbitrary and dependent on conventions as any other approach. An important school which places literary works in the context of larger sociopolitical mechanisms is Marxist literary theory. Conditions of production in certain literary periods and their influence on the literary texts of the time are examined. A Marxist literary interpretation, for example, might see the development of the novel in the eighteenth century as a consequence both of new economic conditions for writers and readers and of new modes in the material production of printed books. Since the mechanisms of class, on which Marxist theory focuses, often parallel the structural processes at work in “race” and “gender,” the theoretical framework provided by Marxist criticism has been adapted by younger schools that focus on marginalized groups, including feminist, African American, gay and lesbian literary criticism or colonial literary studies. Text-oriented theoretical approaches such as deconstruction and new historicism are also indebted to Marxist thought, both for their terminology and philosophical foundations.
A. New historicism
One of the latest developments in the field of contextual approaches has been new historicism, which arose in the US in the 1980s. It builds on post-structuralism and deconstruction, with their focus on text and discourse, but adds a historical dimension to the discussion of literary texts. Certain works by Shakespeare, for instance, are viewed together with historical documents on the discovery of America, and the discovery itself is treated as a text. History, therefore, is not regarded as isolated from the literary text in the sense of a “historical background” but rather as a textual phenomenon.
B. Feminist literary theory and gender theory
The most productive and, at the same time, most revolutionary movement of the younger theories of literary criticism in general and the contextual approaches in particular is feminist literary theory. This complex critical approach is part of a movement which has established itself in almost all academic disciplines and has become particularly strong in the various branches of modern literary criticism. Although gender is always at the center of attention in this school, this particular movement may be used to demonstrate how different approaches in literary studies tend to overlap. Feminist literary theory starts with the assumption that “gender difference” is an aspect which has been neglected in traditional literary criticism and, therefore, that traditional domains of literary criticism have to be reexamined from a gender-oriented perspective. At the beginning of this movement in the late 1960s, thematic issues such as the portrayal of women in literary texts by male authors stood in the foreground.
The most recent trends in gender theory incorporate concepts of deconstruction, thus questioning the entire notion of a stable gender identity. This discussion which was initiated by the American literary theorist Judith Butler (1956–) approaches gender identity in a manner reminiscent of deconstruction explaining meaning in language. Gender is thus “constructed” through a number of interacting elements within a societal fsystem. The key term is “gender construction” according to which “man” and “woman” adopt the role of signifiers whose meaning or identity is construed through an interdependent network of other signifiers.
5. LITERARY CRITIQUE OR EVALUATION
In the English-speaking world, the term literary criticism can refer to the literary interpretation of texts as well as their evaluation. For that reason, “literary critique” is sometimes used to differentiate between the interpretation of a text and the evaluative criticism that often occurs in connection with literary awards and book reviews. In all philologies (disciplines concerned with the literatures of different countries or ethnic groups) there are publications in weekend editions of major newspapers which introduce the latest in primary or secondary literature in the form of book reviews.
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Fiction Definition
Fiction (FICK-shun) is a literary genre comprised of narratives that aren’t factual but are, instead, products of the authors’ imaginations. Fiction is the opposite of nonfiction, a literary genre consisting of historically accurate narratives about real people or events. Fiction writers construct imaginary worlds, typically with symbolism, thematic elements, and aesthetic value.
Most fiction is prose, and novels and short stories are the most common forms. There are two main categories in fiction—literary fiction and genre or popular fiction—though the line between these two delineations can occasionally blur.
The word fiction comes from the Latin fictio, meaning “a fashioning or forming,” which describes the creative world-building central to the genre.
The Characteristics and Types of Fiction
Literary Fiction
Works of literary fiction include at least one of these characteristics:
- Abundant use of literary devices: Authors employ any number of literary devices to enrich the story, such as allegories, imagery, metaphors, and symbolism.
- Character-driven narratives: The characters, rather than the events of the story, move the plot forward. The characters’ internal lives and motivations are of primary interest to the author and the audience.
- Exploration of larger themes: Literary fiction tends to examine larger themes of the human condition. It’s not uncommon for these works to function as a commentary on society, nature, or human behavior.
- Sophisticated language: The language an author uses might involve an advanced vocabulary, poetic descriptions, didacticism, and/or lofty references or allusions.
- Unconventional plots: Authors may structure plots in nontraditional ways that challenge accepted formulas and reader expectations, such as nonlinear narratives and ambiguous endings.
Genre/Popular Fiction
Works of genre or popular fiction have a more widespread appeal, but that doesn’t make them any more or less important than works of literary fiction. Genre/popular fiction usually has the following characteristics:
- Adherence to a formula: Writers of genre/popular fiction stick to formulas that readers expect. From one work to the next, plots follow a similar trajectory and characters possess certain shared traits and motivations.
- Focus on plot: Stories in genre/popular fiction are plot driven. Characters still play a significant role, but the writer’s emphasis is more on driving the plot forward through events and less on the meticulous development of characters.
- Readability: Genre/popular fiction is generally easy to read and understand. Writers utilize accessible language and concepts, and they construct plots and characters for maximum entertainment and reader engagement.
Examples of genre or popular fiction include:
- Crime: This kind of fiction centers on criminal acts, investigations, and outcomes. Courtroom thrillers, like John Grisham’s A Time to Kill and Scott Turow’s Presumed Innocent, and detective novels, like Sue Grafton’s Alphabet Mystery series and Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code, are two subgenres of popular crime fiction.
- Fantasy: These novels take place in richly imagined worlds not bound to known realities or scientific laws; things like folklore, magic, mythology, and/or the supernatural might all influence these worlds. Popular fantasy novels include Anne McCaffrey’s Dragonriders of Pern series and Suzanne Hamilton’s Hunger Games trilogy.
- Horror: Writers of horror fiction aim to scare and shock the reader. These works may or may not employ supernatural elements; psychological horror is often just as frightening. Horror novels like Stephen King’s It and Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire are popular mainstays.
- Romance: These novels chart the romantic relationship between two characters (usually), typically resulting in a happily-ever-after ending. Novels like Laura London’s The Windflower and Nicholas Sparks’s The Notebook are classics of the genre.
- Science Fiction: Books in this category take place in imagined worlds rich with speculative elements, such as technology, futurism, space travel, and other science-based concepts. Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton and The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin are just two popular science fiction novels.
The Formats of Fiction
Novels, novellas, and short stories are among the most common fiction formats. However, because fiction deals with made-up stories and characters, the term can describe any format that presents a fictionalized plot. This includes plays, comic books and graphic novels, fables and fairy tales, and even some types of poetry, such as narrative poems and epic poems.
A fiction format that has grown exponentially in recent years is fan fiction. Fan fiction is a work that uses characters or settings originally developed by another writer as the basis for a new story. Though the original novel’s ideas are copyrighted, fan fiction is largely seen as an homage to the source work. The Harry Potter books and Twilight series inspired legions of fan fiction—including, in the case of the latter, the Fifty Shades of Grey trilogy.
The Function of Fiction
The primary purpose of fiction is to entertain the reader. The genre offers fully imagined worlds that keep readers engaged through compelling characters and plotlines. Fiction can also educate and enlighten, introducing readers to people, settings, and experiences they wouldn’t normally encounter in their daily lives.
Fiction can present and inspire ideas, and it can comment on existing structures of power, politics, and society. Fiction often integrates age-old themes that have long interested writers, such as humanity and its foibles, the beauty and brutality of nature, and the eternal mysteries of love and death. In essence, this genre is both an escape from the world and an opportunity to learn more about it.
Elements of Fiction: Definition
We live in a world full of stories. Novels, short stories, myths, and even plays are all forms of fiction.
All works of fiction are built using the same blocks. So what exactly are those building blocks, and how do they work?
This article will explain the seven elements of fiction and show you examples of what they look like in famous novels.
There are seven elements of fiction that can be found in any story, regardless of the form the narrative takes. These elements are character, plot, setting, theme, point of view, conflict, and tone.
All seven elements work together to create a coherent story. When you’re writing a story, these are the fundamental building blocks you should use.
You can approach the seven elements in any order. For example, you can start with tone—you might know you want to write a funny story, or a scary story. Or you can start with setting—you might decide you want to set the story in your own hometown.
Eventually though, you’ll need all seven elements to make your story complete.
The 7 Elements of Fiction
Here’s an in-depth guide to the seven elements of fiction that every fiction writer and reader should know.
Element 1: Character
Characters are the players within a story. They can be human beings, animals, aliens, or even sentient objects. As long as they make decisions within the story, they’re characters.
Most stories have a main character, or multiple main characters. Some have antagonists who prevent the main characters from achieving their goals. There are also side characters, romantic interests, and many other roles that fictional characters can take in a story.
In a well-written story, each character has a distinct appearance, personality, and motivation. They should be rounded characters who drive the story forward by pursuing their individual goals rather than flat characters who behave like cardboard cut-outs.
Element 2: Plot
Plot refers to the events that happen within the story. It includes every major turning point that the characters experience.
In general, every story has a beginning, middle, and end.
The beginning is the exposition, where the key events of the story are set into action. The middle is the rising action, where progressive complications raise the stakes. And finally, the end is the resolution, where the story gets wrapped up.
Element 3: Setting
Setting is a broad term for the world the story takes place in.
On a macro level, setting might include the country the characters live in and the climate of that country. On a micro level, setting can include the room the characters are standing in, the time of day a scene takes place, or even the day-to-day weather.
Settings can sometimes take on symbolic meanings. For example, the never-ending winter in Narnia in C.S. Lewis’s The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe represents the tyranny of the White Witch’s rule.
Setting includes time as well as place. A story might take place over the span of a single night, like in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, or an entire lifetime, like in A Man Called Ove by Fredrik Backman.
Element 4: Theme
Theme refers to the philosophical questions your story explores.
Often, theme is revealed in the lesson the protagonist needs to learn. For example, one of the themes of Shelley’s science fiction book Frankenstein is that scientists shouldn’t use their powers to create new beings without considering the consequences.
Theme can also be revealed through the core conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist.
For example, in the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling, the antagonist, Voldemort, doesn’t love anybody, while the protagonist, Harry, is protected by the love of his family and friends. Thus, the power of love is a major theme in the series.
Element 5: Point of View
Point of view (POV) is the perspective from which a story is told.
In English class, you might have learned about the four basic POVs:
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First person (“I”)
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Second person (“you”)
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Limited third person (“he, she, they” in one character’s head)
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Omniscient third person (“he, she, they” from an all-seeing perspective)
POV is closely intertwined with form and structure. For example, if your story takes the form of advice offered to someone else, second person makes sense. On the other hand, if your story takes the form of a diary entry, first person makes sense.
Element 6: Conflict
Conflict is what prevents the protagonist from achieving their goals. All fiction writing requires conflict because otherwise there would be no story, just a happy ending.
For example, imagine your protagonist’s goal is to get back home as quickly as possible. The conflict can be as small as a late bus that delays their return, or as large as an earthquake that tears their hometown apart.
There are seven types of conflict: character vs character, character vs self, character vs society, character vs fate, character vs nature, and character vs technology.
Conflict is important because it’s what makes the story interesting. There would be no story if everyone could easily achieve everything they wanted. Adding meaningful obstacles for the characters to overcome is key for creating a compelling story.
Element 7: Tone
Tone helps the author evoke emotion.
When you’re reading or writing, ask yourself: What feeling is this story meant to evoke in the reader? Fear? Amusement? Thoughtfulness? Dread?
Tone is closely related to genre. If you’re writing a thriller, you might want to go for a scary and suspenseful tone. If you’re writing a romantic comedy, you might lean toward a lighter and more humorous tone.
Stories can vary their tones on a scene level. Even a thriller should have lighthearted scenes, and romantic comedies should have serious scenes.
Examples of the Most Famous Elements of Fiction in Literature
(SPOILER ALERT: There are minor spoilers ahead for The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins and The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald.)
Let’s look at the seven elements of fiction in The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins, a young adult (YA) dystopian novel.
Character: The protagonist is Katniss Everdeen, who competes in the Hunger Games. Other major characters include her love interest Peeta Mellark, her younger sister Primrose Everdeen, and the other contestants in the Hunger Games.
Plot: The plot kicks off when Katniss volunteers for the Hunger Games to protect her sister. The rest of the plot follows Katniss training for and competing in the Games.
Setting: The setting is the nation of Panem. Specific settings include District 12, the impoverished district where Katniss grew up; the glittering Capitol, where the rich citizens live in blissful ignorance; and the arena, where the Games take place.
Theme: The themes of the story include power and oppression, suffering as entertainment, and inequality.
Point of View: Katniss is the first-person narrator.
Conflict: The primary conflict is character vs character when Katniss and the other tributes battle one another. Other forms of conflict are present as well, such as the character vs society conflict when Katniss confronts the dystopian society she lives in.
Tone: The writing style of the book is fast-paced and suspenseful, often evoking fear and excitement, as Katniss tells the reader about the life-and-death situations she’s experiencing.
Now let’s look at the seven elements of fiction in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a classic work of literary fiction.
Character: The protagonist is Jay Gatsby, the Great Gatsby himself. Other key characters include his friend Nick Carraway, his love interest Daisy Buchanan, and Daisy’s husband Tom Buchanan.
Plot: The plot follows Jay Gatsby as he throws lavish parties in an attempt to win back Daisy, the love of his life. Over the course of the story, he courts her and nearly convinces her to leave her husband for him, but ultimately loses his life as a result of his efforts.
Setting: The setting is New York in the 1920s during the Jazz Age. Specific settings include West Egg, East Egg, the valley of ashes, and New York City.
Theme: The themes of the story include the American Dream, love and marriage, and dissatisfaction with life in spite of wealth and status.
Point of View: The book is written in the first person from Nick’s point of view. This POV is sometimes called first-person witness, since the narrator isn’t the same person as the protagonist.
Conflict: The primary conflict is character vs self conflict as Gatsby tries to achieve the American Dream and prove to Daisy he’s a great man. There’s also character vs character conflict between Gatsby and the other characters.
Tone: The tone of the book is serious and reflective while Nick reflects on Gatsby’s story and relays it to the reader.
Elements of Fiction: Conclusion
Now you know the key elements that make a story work! Here’s a quick recap:
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Characters
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Plot
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Setting
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Theme
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Point of view
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Conflict
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Tone
What do these elements look like in your favorite stories? Let us know in the comments.
Some Examples of Fiction
1. Louisa May Alcott, Little Women
Alcott’s 1868 novel is a classic work of literary fiction that follows the lives and loves of the four March sisters: Jo, Meg, Beth, and Amy. It is a coming-of-age story focusing on the sisters’ evolution from girlhood to young womanhood as they try to find their respective places in the world. Little Women is a fictionalized version of Alcott’s own life and her relationship with her sisters.
2. Madeleine L’Engle, A Wrinkle in Time
This work is a beloved, award-winning science fiction novel. It tells the story of high schooler Meg Murry, who embarks on an epic adventure through time and space. Her younger brother Charles Wallace and her friend Calvin O’Keefe accompany her on a quest to rescue Meg and Charles Wallace’s scientist father from an evil being holding him captive on another planet. And, in the process, they end up saving the world.
3. Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon
Morrison’s 1977 work of literary fiction recounts the life and death of Macon “Milkman” Dead III. Milkman is a Black man living in Michigan, estranged from his family, his history, and himself. Over the course of 30-plus years, his best friend Guitar and his aunt Pilate help him understand and embrace his identity and his worth. Morrison infuses Milkman’s story with magical realism and African American folklore.
4. Stephen King, Carrie
A horror novel for the ages, King’s work centers on 16-year-old Carrie White, whose story unfolds through fictional letters, newspaper articles, and magazine stories. Raised by a religious-authoritarian mother, Carrie is a misfit at school and the target of merciless bullies. Carrie is also telekinetic, possessing the power to move anything with her mind. She ultimately uses this power to exact a bloody revenge at the school prom, getting back at those who bullied her, the community that forsook her, and, finally, the mother who despised her.
5. Tommy Orange, There There
Orange’s 2018 work of literary fiction chronicles a community of Oakland, California, Native Americans as they prepare and gather for an urban powwow. The narrative illuminates the experiences of Native Americans living in large metropolitan cities and how these environments shape their lives, relationships, and identities. The characters confront a number of challenges stemming from their painful and complex history―including alcoholism and drug addiction, fetal alcohol syndrome, mental illness, and unemployment―yet they are also unique inheritors of a profound and beautiful spirituality and purpose. Eventually, the characters assemble at the powwow, where a shocking crime occurs that alters their lives forever.
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To create your gmail (Google Mail) account, you need the following:
1. An existing e-mail account or a phone number
2. A computer
3. An internet connection (OF COURSE!!!)
Now that you have the aforementioned needed, you can now do the following steps:
Step 1. Right click then click open link in new tab: mail.google.com to open the google mail webpage.
Step 2. Now that you have the log-in page of Gmail, click More Options then click Create Account.
Step 3. Fill in the needed information: Name (First and Last), Username (added with @gmail.com, this will be your email address), Create a password, Confirm your password (encode again the password), Birthday (Month, Date and Year), Gender (Male or Female), Mobile Phone, then your current email address (your Yahoo acount), then click Next Step.
Step 4. Under Privacy Terms, click arrow down again and again until the lowest portion of the page then Click I Agree.
Step 5. Your account will then need verification. Click the bullet Text Message to send the verification code as a text message. Click continue.
Step 6. Open your phone to view sent verification code. This will take several minutes before the code will be sent. PATIENCE IS VIRTUE
Step 7. Enter verification code and click continue. You are now ONE STEP TO GO for your Gmail account.
Step 8. You now have your own personal Gmail Account. Be acquainted with the features of Gmail by exploring it. Enjoy!!
[ Modified: Sunday, 24 September 2023, 11:28 AM ]
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Email is an important form of communication that is used in multiple contexts, from professional to personal.
DO follow these rules and guidelines for proper email netiquette:
Composing Email
- Include a subject line, a proper opening and a closing line
- Know your audience - for formal emails to colleagues or prospective employers, use polite and professional language
- Be concise and proofread the text to make sure there are no grammatical or spelling mistakes
Sending and Responding to Email
- Address all of the sender's questions or concerns
- Confirm that the email of the recipient is correct
- Be careful using the Reply to All button
- If necessary, protect privacy of recipients by using the blind carbon copy (bcc) field
DON'T make these mistakes:
- Writing in capital letters that MAKE IT SEEM LIKE YOU ARE SHOUTING
- Opening emails or attachments from unknown or suspicious senders
- Overusing the priority, high importance or receipt settings
- Sending or forwarding personal or private information without the original sender's consent
- Including unnecessary information or diverging from the purpose of the email
- Using emoticons or abbreviations i.e.
or "lol" unless writing informally to friends or family
- Subscribing to unknown distribution lists
Nothing is private on the Internet and many sites have the ability to archive or store your information.
Your "digital footprint" is the data that you leave behind after interacting in online environments such as social media websites or discussion boards. Be cautious of personal material and information that is posted online by yourself or others. This is important as employers are increasingly using social media to evaluate and find potential employees.
When using social media websites, you should:
- Check the privacy settings on websites such as Facebook
- Confirm that your profile information is accessible only to the extent you choose
- Do not accept people you do not know as "friends" on social media websites
- Be careful when interacting or sharing information with other Internet users
The Core Rules of Netiquette
The following 10 rules and reminders for online communication and behaviour have been summarized from Virginia Shea's book, Netiquette.
Rule 1: Remember the human
Remember that behind every screen is a human being with independent thoughts and feelings. It is easy to misunderstand or be rude to others when you are not interacting with them in person. Before clicking send or post, ask yourself: Would you say it to the person's face?
Rule 2: Adhere to the same standards of behavior as in "real life"
This rule is a reminder that the ethical standards and laws that govern our society extend to cyberspace as well. This includes harassments and bullying, copyright regulations, and privacy.
Rule 3: Know where you are in cyberspace
Different environments require different behaviour. The way we interact with our friends, for example, may not be acceptable in a school or work situation. This principle extends to online environments as well. Comments that are acceptable on Facebook, for instance, may be considered inappropriate on a professional networking site such as LinkedIn.
Rule 4: Respect other people's time and bandwidth
In this rule, "bandwidth" is synonymous with "time." When you send and email or post on a discussion board, keep your comments brief and relevant to the environment or situation.
Rule 5: Make yourself look good online
There are many positive aspects about the Internet, including the ability to remain anonymous. This rule is a reminder not to allow this aspect of the Internet influence how you communicate. Pay attention to your grammar, spelling and word choices as well as the overall content and truthfulness of your writing, as this is what others are using to judge you.
Rule 6: Share expert knowledge
The Internet is a great platform for sharing good information. However, it can also be used to spread misinformation and distortions. If you hold a lot of knowledge about a certain topic or subject, don't be afraid to share it online in a manner that is helpful and accurate.
Rule 7: Help keep flame wars under control
"Flaming" refers to verbal disagreements that occur between users in contexts such as message boards. They are often a result of strongly held opinions and emotions. As in rule 4, do not monopolize online discussion with long or offensive commentary.
Rule 8: Respect other people's privacy
The Internet is an open forum. Remember not to share information about others that could get them -- or yourself -- into trouble, both personally and professionally.
Rule 9: Don't abuse your power
This rule is intended for those who carry more power on the Internet as experts, designers, system administrators or even hackers. Power should always be used responsibly and not to harm or take advantage of those who are less powerful or knowledgeable.
Rule 10: Be forgiving of other people's mistakes
Give other users the benefit of the doubt and consider that they may come from a different background or have less experience on the Internet. Do not be rude when you encounter someone's mistake -- always respond with courteousy and respect.
[ Modified: Sunday, 17 September 2023, 3:50 PM ]
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What is netiquette?
Netiquette is a made-up word from the words net and etiquette. Netiquette thus describes the rules of conduct for respectful and appropriate communication on the internet.
Netiquette is often referred to as etiquette for the internet. These are not legally binding rules, but recommended rules of etiquette. Netiquette is mostly used for dealing with unknown people on the internet. The rules of netiquette very depending on the platform and its participants . Generally, it is up to the operator of a website or communication app to specify the type and scope of netiquette. It is also their responsibility to monitor compliance with these basic rules and to penalize violations of them.
Netiquette: General rules of conduct
When communicating on the internet, you should always remember that you are communicating with people and not simply with computers or smartphones. As in the real world, rules of etiquette are necessary on the internet. Netiquette is therefore important to avoid adverse consequences.
Below you will find 20 general recommendations for conduct on the internet that you should follow when communicating online.
1. Stick to the rules of conduct online that you follow in real life
When communicating online, remember the rules of etiquette that you follow in your everyday life. Refrain from insulting, provoking, threatening or insulting others. Respect the opinions of your chat counterparts and express constructive criticism. Remember that you can be prosecuted for insulting people online.
2. Netiquette: Think of the person
Think of the person behind the computer when you compose your messages. You are not communicating with a machine, but with real people. Also, consider what and how you write. Because the internet doesn't forget anything! A screenshot or a copy of your messages is quickly made and still exists even if you delete your messages afterward.
3. Present your best side online
Communication on the internet comes with a certain anonymity that does not exist in real life when you are talking to someone face to face. Often this anonymity leads to a lower inhibition threshold for many users and they behave rudely online if, for example, you disagree with them.
Make sure that you show your best side online. Remain friendly and respectful, even if you disagree. Good netiquette is characterized by respect, politeness and professionalism.
A tip: You should generally refrain from writing messages or individual words entirely in capital letters – even if you want to give these sections more expression. After all, capital letters on the internet mean shouting and are generally considered impolite.
4. Read first, then ask
Do you have a question about something? Then take the time to carefully read the answers in the previous discussion posts first. There is a good chance that someone has already answered your question. If you write an answer similar to someone else's, it shows the other chat participants that you have paid little attention to the conversation so far.
Remember that conversations online can happen very quickly. It is therefore important to gather all the information before responding or asking questions.
5. Netiquette: Pay attention to grammar and punctuation
Take time to read through your answers again. Check them for grammar, punctuation and correct spelling. It can be very frustrating for the other person if they have to decipher poorly written sentences in order grasp the meaning behind them. In addition, faulty grammar distracts from the goal of your message.
Grammar, spelling and punctuation become especially important when composing emails or other correspondence that you submit to colleagues or superiors. If you have a weakness in grammar and spelling, don't be discouraged. Use spelling aids before you send messages.
Another tip: When composing emails, always remember to use the appropriate salutation and parting formula as well. These are also part of netiquette.
6. Respect the privacy of others
This rule should be followed not only in everyday use of online communication, but also at work. Do not simply forward information that has been sent to you without first obtaining permission from the original sender. When sending private emails to multiple recipients, use BCC (blind carbon copy) instead of CC (carbon copy). Many people do not like their names and email addresses being passed on to people they do not know themselves.
This rule on the internet also applies to uploading and sharing photos or videos that show other people. Before circulating such private files, be sure to check with the people concerned before doing so.
Last but not least: Respect the privacy of others and do not sign up for newsletters, forums or the like with someone else's name or email address.
7. Respect the time and bandwidth of others
We live in a much faster world than our parents or grandparents are used to. Information can be sent to different people around the world in a matter of seconds – and without much effort. Nevertheless, the bandwidth, that is to say the information capacity of wires and channels, is limited. It is similar with humans. Think of this limited receptivity of information when you send messages to your friends, colleagues or superiors.
Do you get to the point quickly enough in your emails? Are your arguments formulated correctly and clearly recognizable? No one wants to waste time unnecessarily on an email whose core message is only at the end of the email. That consumes time and effort, and is simply annoying. Also, consider who really needs to be on the list of recipients. After all, respect for other people's time and bandwidth is also part of netiquette.
8. Forgive the mistakes of others
Everyone who goes online to forums and networks was once a beginner. As in any other field, you can make mistakes as a beginner. In online communication, these can be a lack of etiquette or manners.
Often these are spelling mistakes, superfluous questions or answers that are too long. With this in mind, it's important to forgive your counterparts' mistakes. If they are only minor mistakes, it is best not to react to them at all. In the event of a major error, for example a wrong quote, messages written only in capital letters or missing grammar and punctuation, then it is best to point it out to the person in a private message.
A tip: Sarcasm in written form is not always recognizable to everyone on the internet. It is therefore better to remain objective. If you still want to express sarcasm among friends or close colleagues, use emojis such as smileys or GIFs. Carefully chosen, emojis can reinforce your message.
9. Netiquette: Don't abuse your power
On the internet, as in real life, some people have more power than others. Moderators in a forum, experts in companies or system administrators. If you have more power than others, you do not have the right to exploit this power.
Don't spy on colleagues or chat participants just because you have the technical means to do so. For example, system administrators should never read private emails or find out about the salary structure in the company.
10. Help keep flame wars under control
Flame wars are messages that contain aggressive personal criticism or attacks on a person. In group chats, heated discussions often degenerate into so-called flame wars. If you get into such a discussion, you should stay out of it. Always remember that you should treat others as you would like to be treated. Profanity is not part of netiquette.
Also remember that insults and threats on the internet can have legal consequences for you. For this reason, do not be tempted to make such comments, even in heated discussions. Instead, demonstrate exemplary conduct on the internet.
11. Know where you are in cyberspace
Netiquette is interpreted differently in different places on the internet. For example, it is perfectly normal to spread gossip in a TV discussion group. However, if you do this in a serious discussion group, you will quickly make yourself unpopular. It is therefore important that you know where you are on the internet.
This also means that if you are in a new area that is unfamiliar to you, you need to look around and learn the ropes. Get an idea of how other people in this area of cyberspace communicate with each other and adapt to them.
12. Hate speech and netiquette
So-called hate speech on the internet is an increasing problem, especially in social media. It is often found in offensive comments under photos or posts. However, time and again there are coordinated actions by specific actors who join forces for the sole purpose of spreading hate comments. Not infrequently, social or religious fringe groups, foreigners or black people become victims of such actions.
What can you do against hate speech? If you come across such statements on the internet, you should report them to the provider of the website. Often you will find the option to report a post directly underneath it on social media. The providers are legally obliged to delete content which is evidently illegal within 24 hours.
In addition, you can actively approach the spreaders of hate speech and try to invalidate their statements and subsequently educate the perpetrators. It is advisable to ask for the alleged "facts" and take a clear position against hate. Steer the discussion in a more positive direction. However, under no circumstances should you react with hate or insults. You could also be held accountable for this.
Netiquette: Safety rules for children
The internet is an enrichment for everyone – in everyday life, at school and at work. However, it brings with it some risks and downsides, such as the dark net. Talk to your child and explain the possible risks of the internet. Respect your child's privacy and explain the following rules for children on the internet:
13. Children on the internet: Do not give out personal information
In these times of social media, identity theft and social engineering, keeping personal information secret is essential! Under no circumstances should your child share passwords or personal information such as their name, address or telephone number online. The name of the school or clubs should also be kept secret.
14. Use a neutral nickname
Make sure that your child uses a neutral nickname in chat rooms. This should under no circumstances reveal your child's identity. In addition, a neutral nickname ensures that other people do not feel insulted or ridiculed.
15. Netiquette and bots/troll posts
So-called bots are computer programs that usually automatically follow up on a task without requiring any interaction with humans. In social media channels, bots often post comments or even their own posts.
They often spam in forums or in the comments under posts. This is annoying and time-consuming, as these responses have to be identified and removed. Bots are therefore not part of netiquette and should be avoided if at all possible.
16. Rules for children on the internet: Do not trust chat participants
Your child should always approach strangers with a healthy skepticism. You never know who is really hiding behind the funny profile name and picture. For example, your child should never meet a stranger just because they got along well in a chat conversation. It could be an adult with bad intentions.
Similarly, you should explain to your child that they should not add strangers as friends on social media such as Facebook or Instagram. Your child should also not simply open emails and other messages and download attachments. In doing so, your child could accidentally download a Trojan or other malware.
17. Fairness first: Do not exclude anyone
If your child is communicating in a private group, they should refrain from making insider jokes that not everyone in the group will understand. It is better to send a private message to this person. Other chat participants should not feel excluded. Netiquette includes values such as tolerance, respect and helpfulness. This also means that only the language used by everyone should be used.
In a school group chat, your child should always make sure that all chat members are on the same level, for example during a review or presentation. When your child is explaining a topic that may not be clear to everyone, it is a good idea to answer questions about the topic.
18. Netiquette for children: Keep it short and clear
Posts, answers and even questions should be kept as short and clear as possible. No one wants to read an unnecessary amount of text that does not contribute to answering the issue.
Cumbersome language and repetitions only clog up chats and forums; in addition, spelling mistakes can make it more difficult to read and understand what is being said. Forwarding chain letters also has no place in respectful online communication.
19. Netiquette and online learning (tips for pupils)
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, most teaching in schools was done online. So-called homeschooling – teaching from home – was a new challenge that pupils, teachers and parents had to overcome together. Here are some tips for teaching from home:
- Children should support one another, for example by responding to classmates' questions on a chat thread.
- Instruct your children not to digitally record or take screenshots of lessons without first getting the teacher's permission.
- A polite and respectful tone is an absolute must in homeschooling.
- Passwords and credentials given by the school must not be passed on by children to third parties under any circumstances.
- Children should be ready a few minutes before class starts in order to start on time. Teaching materials should be ready and the camera for the video conference should always be switched on. You should also make sure that your child dresses as they would appear at school.
- Pupils should speak up if they have any questions or comments. Afterwards, they should mute their microphone again so as not to disturb the lesson with any background noise.
20. Trust your child
Last but not least, the most important rule for children's use of the internet: Trust your child. After all, you cannot permanently look over their shoulder, whether your child is learning via computer, smartphone or tablet. Your child learns best through their own experiences. Trust in your offspring's abilities, and refrain from constantly monitoring their internet activities. It is usually enough to know that your child can ask you for help if the worst happens.
Conclusion
If you follow the above rules of netiquette, you will have no problems with online communication in everyday life, in class or at work. In addition, your respectful and friendly behavior will be noticed positively by your colleagues and superiors.
Especially for children, it is important to learn the correct rules of etiquette on the internet at an early age. Social interaction and the correct rules of etiquette and behavior on the internet are just as important as in real life.
[ Modified: Sunday, 17 September 2023, 3:41 PM ]
Characters: The main character is Zane from Ninjago, other know characters present were Lloyd, Cole, Kai, Nya, and Jay. There were unnamed characters but they were just filler characters for the story
Plot: After Zane left the Never Realm and came back to Ninjago he has slowly descending a dark path, where killing felt like the only way to solve all their never ending enemy problems
Setting: There was no given setting in the begging but later on the ninjas where on a mountain
Theme: The theme of the storie is dissociative identity disorder (DID), murder, and killing for love ones
Point of view: The point of view is limited third person that focuses only on Zane
Conflict: The main conflict is character vs himself as Zane fights himself or his ice emperor side to not take control and kill all the bad people who where hurting his family. Other conflict that was present was character vs character where Zane figh people to defend his family
Tone: The tone of the story was over all, dark
I do not know if I should add this or not (Sr. Is this considered theme or is it just the leson of the story? On nun of the two) . The story, overall, to me, It perfectly expressed the thought of someone who has always been nice wanting to kill to protect their love ones even if it meant their love ones finding out then fearing them.
"Seeing them afraid of them was always better option then seeing them dead"
That's the coolest and coldest line I've read in a while