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On This Post:
- What Is Qualitative Research?
- Qualitative Methods
- Examples
- Qualitative Data Analysis
- Key Features
- Limitations of Qualitative Research
- Advantages of Qualitative Research
- What Is Quantitative Research?
- Quantitative Methods
- Examples
- Quantitative Data Analysis
- Key Features
- Limitations of Quantitative Research
- Advantages of Quantitative Research
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?
The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.
Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.
Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.
Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.
What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.
Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.
Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)
Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner).
Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human. Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism).
Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.
Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.
Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.
Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.
Qualitative Methods
There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews, documents, focus groups, case study research, and ethnography.
The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.
The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)
Examples
Here are some examples of qualitative data:
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Interview transcripts: Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.
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Observations: The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.
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Unstructured interviews: generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
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Diaries or journals: Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.
Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.
Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis.
For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded.
Key Features
- Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
- Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
- The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
- The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
- The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.
Limitations of Qualitative Research
- Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
- The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
- Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
- The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.
Advantages of Qualitative Research
- Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
- Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
- Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
- Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.
What Is Quantitative Research?
Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.
The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables, make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.
Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
Quantitative Methods
Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things. However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires, can produce both quantitative information.
For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).
Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.
Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.
Examples
There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:
- Standardized psychological assessments: One example of a standardized psychological assessment of IQ that uses quantitative data is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles.
The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.
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Neuroimaging data: Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.
This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.
- Clinical outcome measures: The use of clinical outcome measures provides objective, standardized data that can be used to assess treatment effectiveness and monitor symptoms over time, helping mental health professionals make informed decisions about treatment and care.
For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.
The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.
Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).
Key Features
- Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
- The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
- The design of the study is determined before it begins.
- For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
- Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
Limitations of Quantitative Research
- Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
- Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
- Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
- Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.
Advantages of Quantitative Research
- Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
- Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
- Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
- Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
- Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).
References
Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS. Sage.
Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics. Sage.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research: what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4), 716-721.
Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.
Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.
Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4), 364.
Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.
Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage
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There are two distinct types of data collection and study: qualitative and quantitative. Although both provide an analysis of data, they differ in their approach and the type of data they collect. Awareness of these approaches can help researchers construct their study and data collection methods.
Topics:
- What Is the Difference Between Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research?
- Qualitative vs. Quantitative Outcomes
- Benefits and Limitations of Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
- How To Analyze Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
- Become a Qualitative or Quantitative Researcher
What Is the Difference Between Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research?
Because qualitative and quantitative studies collect different types of data, their data collection methods differ considerably. Quantitative studies rely on numerical or measurable data. In contrast, qualitative studies rely on personal accounts or documents that illustrate in detail how people think or respond within society.
Qualitative Research: Data Collection for Your Doctorate Degree
Qualitative research methods include gathering and interpreting non-numerical data. The following are some sources of qualitative data1:
- Interviews
- Focus groups
- Documents
- Personal accounts or papers
- Cultural records
- Observation
In the course of a qualitative study, the researcher may conduct interviews or focus groups to collect data that is not available in existing documents or records. To allow freedom for varied or unexpected answers, interviews and focus groups may be unstructured or semi-structured.
An unstructured or semi-structured format allows the researcher to pose open-ended questions and follow wherever the responses lead. The responses provide a comprehensive perspective on each individual’s experiences, which are then compared with those of other participants in the study.
Quantitative Research: Data Collection for Your Degree
Quantitative studies, in contrast, require different data collection methods. These methods include compiling numerical data to test causal relationships among variables. Some forms of data collection for this type of study include1:
- Experiments
- Questionnaires
- Surveys
- Database reports
The above collection methods yield data that lends itself to numerical analysis. Questionnaires in this case have a multiple-choice format to generate countable answers, such as “yes” or “no,” which can be turned into quantifiable data.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Outcomes
One of the factors distinguishing qualitative from quantitative studies is the nature of the intended outcome. Qualitative researchers seek to learn from details of the testimonies of those they are studying. Over the course of a study, conclusions are drawn by compiling, comparing and evaluating the participants’ feedback and input. Qualitative research is often focused on answering the “why” behind a phenomenon, correlation or behavior.
In contrast, quantitative data are analyzed numerically to develop a statistical picture of a trend or connection. Such statistical results may shed light on cause-and-effect relationships, and they may either confirm or disprove the study’s original hypothesis. Whether positive or negative, the outcome can enrich understanding of a subject and spark action. Quantitative research is often focused on answering the questions of “what” or “how” in regards to a phenomenon, correlation or behavior.
Benefits and Limitations of Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Another difference between qualitative and quantitative research lies in their advantages and limitations. Each form of research has benefits and shortcomings. Researchers must consider their hypotheses and what forms of data collection and analysis are likely to produce the most relevant findings.
Benefits of Qualitative Research
There are some significant benefits of qualitative research that should be considered when evaluating the difference between qualitative and quantitative research. The qualitative method allows for creativity, varied interpretations and flexibility. The scope of the research project can change as more information is gathered.
Limitations of Qualitative Research
Qualitative studies are more subjective in their results and interpretation than are quantitative studies. The expertise and perspective of the researcher may strongly influence the interpretation of results and the conclusions reached, because personal bias can be hard to manage. In addition, qualitative studies often test a smaller sample size due to the costs and efforts associated with qualitative data collection methods.1
Benefits of Quantitative Research
The similarities of qualitative and quantitative research do not encompass their respective benefits, because each approach has unique advantages. For example, unlike qualitative studies, quantitative studies produce objective data, and their results can be clearly communicated through statistics and numbers. Quantitative studies can be quickly analyzed with the benefit of data computing software.
Limitations of Quantitative Research
Yet, although objectivity is a benefit of the quantitative method, this approach can be viewed as a more restrictive form of study. Participants cannot tailor their responses or add context. Furthermore, statistical analysis requires a large data sample, which calls for a large pool of participants.1
How To Analyze Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
Another of the similarities of qualitative and quantitative research is that both look for patterns in the data they collect that point to a relationship between elements. Both qualitative and quantitative data are instrumental in supporting existing theories and developing new ones. Ultimately, the researcher must determine which kind of research best serves the goals of their study.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Because qualitative data doesn’t allow for numerical data analysis, any analytical approach must be developed with care and caution. Here are a few different methods of qualitative data analysis, as follows:
- Content analysis: Groups together similar concepts, themes and words that emerge from the data in order to understand interrelationships
- Discourse analysis: Evaluates the way in which people often express themselves in various contexts through the lens of cultural and power dynamics
- Thematic analysis: Seeks to understand the true meaning behind subjects’ words by uncovering recurrent themes in the data
Analyzing Quantitative Data
The question of how to analyze quantitative data is slightly more straightforward compared to the various approaches for qualitative data. When working with quantitative data, doctoral researchers will generally review the collected data and organize it into visual elements, such as charts and graphs.
The data can be evaluated using either descriptive or inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics provide an avenue for describing the population or data set. Inferential statistics can be used to generalize results, as well as to project future trends or predictions about a larger dataset or population.
Become a Qualitative or Quantitative Researcher
Some researchers choose to adhere to and hone a single methodological approach throughout their time as doctoral learners — or in their profession. Research skills are critical in a variety of careers.
If you have a desire to conduct research, a qualitative or quantitative doctoral degree can support your initiative. Throughout your program, you will learn methods for constructing a qualitative or quantitative study and producing written research findings.
1 Mcleod, S. (2023, May 10). Qualitative vs quantitative research: methods & data analysis. Simply Psychology. Retrieved in May 2023.
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What Is a Short Story?
A short story is a work of short, narrative prose that is usually centered around one single event. It is limited in scope and has an introduction, body and conclusion. Although a short story has much in common with a novel (See How to Analyze a Novel), it is written with much greater precision. You will often be asked to write a literary analysis. An analysis of a short story requires basic knowledge of literary elements. The following guide and questions may help you:
Setting
Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place. In a short story there are fewer settings compared to a novel. The time is more limited. Ask yourself the following questions:
- How is the setting created? Consider geography, weather, time of day, social conditions, etc.
- What role does setting play in the story? Is it an important part of the plot or theme? Or is it just a backdrop against which the action takes place?
Study the time period, which is also part of the setting, and ask yourself the following:
- When was the story written?
- Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future?
- How does the time period affect the language, atmosphere or social circumstances of the short story?
Characterization
Characterization deals with how the characters in the story are described. In short stories there are usually fewer characters compared to a novel. They usually focus on one central character or protagonist. Ask yourself the following:
- Who is the main character?
- Are the main character and other characters described through dialogue – by the way they speak (dialect or slang for instance)?
- Has the author described the characters by physical appearance, thoughts and feelings, and interaction (the way they act towards others)?
- Are they static/flat characters who do not change?
- Are they dynamic/round characters who DO change?
- What type of characters are they? What qualities stand out? Are they stereotypes?
- Are the characters believable?
Plot and structure
The plot is the main sequence of events that make up the story. In short stories the plot is usually centered around one experience or significant moment. Consider the following questions:
- What is the most important event?
- How is the plot structured? Is it linear, chronological or does it move around?
- Is the plot believable?
Narrator and Point of view
The narrator is the person telling the story. Consider this question: Are the narrator and the main character the same?
By point of view we mean from whose eyes the story is being told. Short stories tend to be told through one character's point of view. The following are important questions to consider:
- Who is the narrator or speaker in the story?
- Does the author speak through the main character?
- Is the story written in the first person "I" point of view?
- Is the story written in a detached third person "he/she" point of view?
- Is there an "all-knowing" third person who can reveal what all the characters are thinking and doing at all times and in all places?
Conflict
Conflict or tension is usually the heart of the short story and is related to the main character. In a short story there is usually one main struggle.
- How would you describe the main conflict?
- Is it an internal conflict within the character?
- Is it an external conflict caused by the surroundings or environment the main character finds himself/herself in?
Climax
The climax is the point of greatest tension or intensity in the short story. It can also be the point where events take a major turn as the story races towards its conclusion. Ask yourself:
- Is there a turning point in the story?
- When does the climax take place?
Theme
The theme is the main idea, lesson, or message in the short story. It may be an abstract idea about the human condition, society, or life. Ask yourself:
- How is the theme expressed?
- Are any elements repeated and therefore suggest a theme?
- Is there more than one theme?
Style
The author's style has to do with the his or her vocabulary, use of imagery, tone, or the feeling of the story. It has to do with the author's attitude toward the subject. In some short stories the tone can be ironic, humorous, cold, or dramatic.
- Is the author's language full of figurative language?
- What images are used?
- Does the author use a lot of symbolism? Metaphors (comparisons that do not use "as" or "like") or similes (comparisons that use "as" or "like")?
Your literary analysis of a short story will often be in the form of an essay where you may be asked to give your opinions of the short story at the end. Choose the elements that made the greatest impression on you. Point out which character/characters you liked best or least and always support your arguments.
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As with the classification systems of genres and text types, the approaches to literary texts are characterized by a number of divergent methodologies. The following sections show that literary interpretations always reflect a particular institutional, cultural, and historical background. This classification inevitably results in a drastic reduction of highly complex theories to their most basic patterns.
1. TEXT-ORIENTED APPROACHES
The text-oriented approach is primarily concerned with questions of the “materiality” of texts, including editions of manuscripts, analyses of language and style, and the formal structure of literary works. Author-oriented schools put the main emphasis on the author, trying to establish connections between the work of art and the biography of its creator. Text-oriented traditions, however, center on the text primarily investigating its formal or structural features.
A. Philology
In literary criticism, the term philology generally denotes approaches which focus on editorial problems and the reconstruction of texts. The materiality of texts, a major concern of traditional philology, is still relevant to today’s literary scholarship, as illustrated by the debate concerning the reliability of the generally accepted edition of James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922).
B. Rhetoric and stylistics
Together with theology and grammar, rhetoric remained the dominant textual discipline for almost two thousand years. Since ancient Greco-Roman culture treasured public speech, rhetoric compiled a number of rules and techniques for efficient composition and powerful oratory. It offered guidelines for every phase of textual composition including inventio (selection of themes), dispositio (organization of material), elocutio (verbalization with the help of rhetorical figures), memoria (the technique of remembering the speech), and actio (delivery of the speech).
In the nineteenth century, rhetoric eventually lost its influence and partially developed into stylistics, a field whose methodology was adopted by literary criticism and art history as well. With the aim of describing stylistic idiosyncrasies of individual authors, entire nations, or whole periods, stylistics focused on grammatical structures (lexis, syntax), acoustic elements (melody, rhyme, meter, rhythm), and over-arching forms (rhetorical figures) in its analyses of texts.
C. Formalism and structuralism
The terms formalism and structuralism encompass a number of schools in the first half of the twentieth century whose main goal lies in the explication of the formal and structural patterns of literary texts. This emphasis on the intrinsic and structural aspects of a literarywork deliberately distinguished itself from older traditions—above all the biographical literary criticism of the nineteenth century—which were primarily concerned with extrinsic or extra-textual features intheir analysis of literature.
D. New criticism
Largely independent of European formalism and structuralism, new criticism established itself as the dominant school of literary criticism in the English-speaking academic community during the 1930s and 1940s. New criticism objects toevaluative critique, source studies, investigations of sociohistoricalback-ground, and the history of motifs; it also counters authorcentered biographical or psychological approaches as well as thehistory of reception. Its main concern is to free literary criticism of extrinsic factors and thereby shift the center of attention to the literary text itself.
E. Semiotics and deconstruction
Semiotics and deconstruction are the most recent trends in textoriented literary theory of the 1970s and 1980s, which regards a text as a system of signs.
Semiotics and deconstruction use the verbal sign or signifier as the starting point of their analyses, arguing that nothing exists outside the text, i.e., that our perception of the world is of a textual nature. A new and unconventional aspect of semiotics and deconstruction is their attempt to extend the traditional notion of textuality to nonliterary or nonlinguistic sign systems.
Like semiotics, deconstruction also highlights the building-block character of texts whose elements consist of signs. This poststructuralist method of analysis starts with the assumption that a text can be analyzed (destructed) and put together (constructed).
2. AUTHOR-ORIENTED APPROACHES
This author-oriented approach established a direct link between the literary text and the biography of the author. Dates, facts, and events in an author’s life are juxtaposed with literary elements of his or her works in order to find aspects which connect the biography of the author with the text.
Autobiographies are obviously suitable for this kind of approach, which compares the fictional portrayal with the facts and figures from the author’s life. In many cases, autobiographical material enters the fictional text in codes.
Author-centered approaches focus also on aspects which might have entered the text on a subconscious or involuntary level. The fact that Mary Shelley had a miscarriage during the period in which she wrote her novel Frankenstein (1818) can be related directly to the plot. According to the author-centered approaches, the central theme of the novel, the creation of an artificial human being, can be traced back to Mary Shelley’s intense psychological occupation with the issue of birth at the time.
3. READER-ORIENTED APPROACHES
A reader-oriented approach developed in the 1960s called reception theory, reader-response theory, or aesthetics of reception. All three terms are used almost synonymously to summarize those approaches which focus on the reader’s point of view. Some of these approaches do not postulate a single objective text, but rather assume that there are as many texts as readers. Reader-centered approaches examine the readership of a text and investigate why, where, and when it is read. They also examine certain reading practices of social, ethnic, or national groups. Many of these investigations also deal with and try to explain the physiological aspect of the actual reading process. They aim at revealing certain mechanisms which are employed in the transformation of the visual signs on paper into a coherent, meaningful text in the mind of the reader. These approaches assume that a text creates certain expectations in the reader in every phase of reading.
Expectations are at the basis of text interpretation on every level of the reading process, from the deciphering of a single word or sentence to the analysis of thematic structures of texts. Reception theory, therefore, shifts the focus from the text to the interaction between reader and text. It argues that the interpretation of texts cannot and must not be detached from the reading individual. A further aspect which is closely connected with this movement is the investigation of the reception of texts by a particular readership.
In reception history sales figures are examined together with reviews in newspapers and magazines. These analyses can either look at the reception of texts in one particular period (synchronic analysis) or trace changes and developments in the reception of texts in literary history (diachronic analysis). The reader-centered approaches of reception theory and reception history, particularly influential in the 1970s as reactions to the THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO LITERATURE 93 dogmas of new criticism, were pushed into the background in the 1980s by text-oriented semiotics and deconstruction as well as by a variety of context-centered schools.
4. CONTEXT-ORIENTED APPROACHES
The term context-oriented approaches refers here to a heterogeneous group of schools and methodologies which do not regard literary texts as self-contained, independent works of art but try to place them within a larger context. Depending on the movement, this context can be history, social and political background, literary genre, nationality, or gender. The most influential movement to this day is literary history, which divides literary phenomena into periods, describes the text with respect to its historical background, dates texts and examines their mutual influence. This movement is associated with the discipline of history and is guided by historical methodology. The entire notion of literary history has become so familiar to us that it is difficult to distinguish it as an approach at all. This historically informed methodology which organizes literary works in a variety of categories is, of course, as arbitrary and dependent on conventions as any other approach. An important school which places literary works in the context of larger sociopolitical mechanisms is Marxist literary theory. Conditions of production in certain literary periods and their influence on the literary texts of the time are examined. A Marxist literary interpretation, for example, might see the development of the novel in the eighteenth century as a consequence both of new economic conditions for writers and readers and of new modes in the material production of printed books. Since the mechanisms of class, on which Marxist theory focuses, often parallel the structural processes at work in “race” and “gender,” the theoretical framework provided by Marxist criticism has been adapted by younger schools that focus on marginalized groups, including feminist, African American, gay and lesbian literary criticism or colonial literary studies. Text-oriented theoretical approaches such as deconstruction and new historicism are also indebted to Marxist thought, both for their terminology and philosophical foundations.
A. New historicism
One of the latest developments in the field of contextual approaches has been new historicism, which arose in the US in the 1980s. It builds on post-structuralism and deconstruction, with their focus on text and discourse, but adds a historical dimension to the discussion of literary texts. Certain works by Shakespeare, for instance, are viewed together with historical documents on the discovery of America, and the discovery itself is treated as a text. History, therefore, is not regarded as isolated from the literary text in the sense of a “historical background” but rather as a textual phenomenon.
B. Feminist literary theory and gender theory
The most productive and, at the same time, most revolutionary movement of the younger theories of literary criticism in general and the contextual approaches in particular is feminist literary theory. This complex critical approach is part of a movement which has established itself in almost all academic disciplines and has become particularly strong in the various branches of modern literary criticism. Although gender is always at the center of attention in this school, this particular movement may be used to demonstrate how different approaches in literary studies tend to overlap. Feminist literary theory starts with the assumption that “gender difference” is an aspect which has been neglected in traditional literary criticism and, therefore, that traditional domains of literary criticism have to be reexamined from a gender-oriented perspective. At the beginning of this movement in the late 1960s, thematic issues such as the portrayal of women in literary texts by male authors stood in the foreground.
The most recent trends in gender theory incorporate concepts of deconstruction, thus questioning the entire notion of a stable gender identity. This discussion which was initiated by the American literary theorist Judith Butler (1956–) approaches gender identity in a manner reminiscent of deconstruction explaining meaning in language. Gender is thus “constructed” through a number of interacting elements within a societal fsystem. The key term is “gender construction” according to which “man” and “woman” adopt the role of signifiers whose meaning or identity is construed through an interdependent network of other signifiers.
5. LITERARY CRITIQUE OR EVALUATION
In the English-speaking world, the term literary criticism can refer to the literary interpretation of texts as well as their evaluation. For that reason, “literary critique” is sometimes used to differentiate between the interpretation of a text and the evaluative criticism that often occurs in connection with literary awards and book reviews. In all philologies (disciplines concerned with the literatures of different countries or ethnic groups) there are publications in weekend editions of major newspapers which introduce the latest in primary or secondary literature in the form of book reviews.
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Fiction Definition
Fiction (FICK-shun) is a literary genre comprised of narratives that aren’t factual but are, instead, products of the authors’ imaginations. Fiction is the opposite of nonfiction, a literary genre consisting of historically accurate narratives about real people or events. Fiction writers construct imaginary worlds, typically with symbolism, thematic elements, and aesthetic value.
Most fiction is prose, and novels and short stories are the most common forms. There are two main categories in fiction—literary fiction and genre or popular fiction—though the line between these two delineations can occasionally blur.
The word fiction comes from the Latin fictio, meaning “a fashioning or forming,” which describes the creative world-building central to the genre.
The Characteristics and Types of Fiction
Literary Fiction
Works of literary fiction include at least one of these characteristics:
- Abundant use of literary devices: Authors employ any number of literary devices to enrich the story, such as allegories, imagery, metaphors, and symbolism.
- Character-driven narratives: The characters, rather than the events of the story, move the plot forward. The characters’ internal lives and motivations are of primary interest to the author and the audience.
- Exploration of larger themes: Literary fiction tends to examine larger themes of the human condition. It’s not uncommon for these works to function as a commentary on society, nature, or human behavior.
- Sophisticated language: The language an author uses might involve an advanced vocabulary, poetic descriptions, didacticism, and/or lofty references or allusions.
- Unconventional plots: Authors may structure plots in nontraditional ways that challenge accepted formulas and reader expectations, such as nonlinear narratives and ambiguous endings.
Genre/Popular Fiction
Works of genre or popular fiction have a more widespread appeal, but that doesn’t make them any more or less important than works of literary fiction. Genre/popular fiction usually has the following characteristics:
- Adherence to a formula: Writers of genre/popular fiction stick to formulas that readers expect. From one work to the next, plots follow a similar trajectory and characters possess certain shared traits and motivations.
- Focus on plot: Stories in genre/popular fiction are plot driven. Characters still play a significant role, but the writer’s emphasis is more on driving the plot forward through events and less on the meticulous development of characters.
- Readability: Genre/popular fiction is generally easy to read and understand. Writers utilize accessible language and concepts, and they construct plots and characters for maximum entertainment and reader engagement.
Examples of genre or popular fiction include:
- Crime: This kind of fiction centers on criminal acts, investigations, and outcomes. Courtroom thrillers, like John Grisham’s A Time to Kill and Scott Turow’s Presumed Innocent, and detective novels, like Sue Grafton’s Alphabet Mystery series and Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code, are two subgenres of popular crime fiction.
- Fantasy: These novels take place in richly imagined worlds not bound to known realities or scientific laws; things like folklore, magic, mythology, and/or the supernatural might all influence these worlds. Popular fantasy novels include Anne McCaffrey’s Dragonriders of Pern series and Suzanne Hamilton’s Hunger Games trilogy.
- Horror: Writers of horror fiction aim to scare and shock the reader. These works may or may not employ supernatural elements; psychological horror is often just as frightening. Horror novels like Stephen King’s It and Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire are popular mainstays.
- Romance: These novels chart the romantic relationship between two characters (usually), typically resulting in a happily-ever-after ending. Novels like Laura London’s The Windflower and Nicholas Sparks’s The Notebook are classics of the genre.
- Science Fiction: Books in this category take place in imagined worlds rich with speculative elements, such as technology, futurism, space travel, and other science-based concepts. Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton and The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin are just two popular science fiction novels.
The Formats of Fiction
Novels, novellas, and short stories are among the most common fiction formats. However, because fiction deals with made-up stories and characters, the term can describe any format that presents a fictionalized plot. This includes plays, comic books and graphic novels, fables and fairy tales, and even some types of poetry, such as narrative poems and epic poems.
A fiction format that has grown exponentially in recent years is fan fiction. Fan fiction is a work that uses characters or settings originally developed by another writer as the basis for a new story. Though the original novel’s ideas are copyrighted, fan fiction is largely seen as an homage to the source work. The Harry Potter books and Twilight series inspired legions of fan fiction—including, in the case of the latter, the Fifty Shades of Grey trilogy.
The Function of Fiction
The primary purpose of fiction is to entertain the reader. The genre offers fully imagined worlds that keep readers engaged through compelling characters and plotlines. Fiction can also educate and enlighten, introducing readers to people, settings, and experiences they wouldn’t normally encounter in their daily lives.
Fiction can present and inspire ideas, and it can comment on existing structures of power, politics, and society. Fiction often integrates age-old themes that have long interested writers, such as humanity and its foibles, the beauty and brutality of nature, and the eternal mysteries of love and death. In essence, this genre is both an escape from the world and an opportunity to learn more about it.
Elements of Fiction: Definition
We live in a world full of stories. Novels, short stories, myths, and even plays are all forms of fiction.
All works of fiction are built using the same blocks. So what exactly are those building blocks, and how do they work?
This article will explain the seven elements of fiction and show you examples of what they look like in famous novels.
There are seven elements of fiction that can be found in any story, regardless of the form the narrative takes. These elements are character, plot, setting, theme, point of view, conflict, and tone.
All seven elements work together to create a coherent story. When you’re writing a story, these are the fundamental building blocks you should use.
You can approach the seven elements in any order. For example, you can start with tone—you might know you want to write a funny story, or a scary story. Or you can start with setting—you might decide you want to set the story in your own hometown.
Eventually though, you’ll need all seven elements to make your story complete.
The 7 Elements of Fiction
Here’s an in-depth guide to the seven elements of fiction that every fiction writer and reader should know.
Element 1: Character
Characters are the players within a story. They can be human beings, animals, aliens, or even sentient objects. As long as they make decisions within the story, they’re characters.
Most stories have a main character, or multiple main characters. Some have antagonists who prevent the main characters from achieving their goals. There are also side characters, romantic interests, and many other roles that fictional characters can take in a story.
In a well-written story, each character has a distinct appearance, personality, and motivation. They should be rounded characters who drive the story forward by pursuing their individual goals rather than flat characters who behave like cardboard cut-outs.
Element 2: Plot
Plot refers to the events that happen within the story. It includes every major turning point that the characters experience.
In general, every story has a beginning, middle, and end.
The beginning is the exposition, where the key events of the story are set into action. The middle is the rising action, where progressive complications raise the stakes. And finally, the end is the resolution, where the story gets wrapped up.
Element 3: Setting
Setting is a broad term for the world the story takes place in.
On a macro level, setting might include the country the characters live in and the climate of that country. On a micro level, setting can include the room the characters are standing in, the time of day a scene takes place, or even the day-to-day weather.
Settings can sometimes take on symbolic meanings. For example, the never-ending winter in Narnia in C.S. Lewis’s The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe represents the tyranny of the White Witch’s rule.
Setting includes time as well as place. A story might take place over the span of a single night, like in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, or an entire lifetime, like in A Man Called Ove by Fredrik Backman.
Element 4: Theme
Theme refers to the philosophical questions your story explores.
Often, theme is revealed in the lesson the protagonist needs to learn. For example, one of the themes of Shelley’s science fiction book Frankenstein is that scientists shouldn’t use their powers to create new beings without considering the consequences.
Theme can also be revealed through the core conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist.
For example, in the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling, the antagonist, Voldemort, doesn’t love anybody, while the protagonist, Harry, is protected by the love of his family and friends. Thus, the power of love is a major theme in the series.
Element 5: Point of View
Point of view (POV) is the perspective from which a story is told.
In English class, you might have learned about the four basic POVs:
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First person (“I”)
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Second person (“you”)
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Limited third person (“he, she, they” in one character’s head)
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Omniscient third person (“he, she, they” from an all-seeing perspective)
POV is closely intertwined with form and structure. For example, if your story takes the form of advice offered to someone else, second person makes sense. On the other hand, if your story takes the form of a diary entry, first person makes sense.
Element 6: Conflict
Conflict is what prevents the protagonist from achieving their goals. All fiction writing requires conflict because otherwise there would be no story, just a happy ending.
For example, imagine your protagonist’s goal is to get back home as quickly as possible. The conflict can be as small as a late bus that delays their return, or as large as an earthquake that tears their hometown apart.
There are seven types of conflict: character vs character, character vs self, character vs society, character vs fate, character vs nature, and character vs technology.
Conflict is important because it’s what makes the story interesting. There would be no story if everyone could easily achieve everything they wanted. Adding meaningful obstacles for the characters to overcome is key for creating a compelling story.
Element 7: Tone
Tone helps the author evoke emotion.
When you’re reading or writing, ask yourself: What feeling is this story meant to evoke in the reader? Fear? Amusement? Thoughtfulness? Dread?
Tone is closely related to genre. If you’re writing a thriller, you might want to go for a scary and suspenseful tone. If you’re writing a romantic comedy, you might lean toward a lighter and more humorous tone.
Stories can vary their tones on a scene level. Even a thriller should have lighthearted scenes, and romantic comedies should have serious scenes.
Examples of the Most Famous Elements of Fiction in Literature
(SPOILER ALERT: There are minor spoilers ahead for The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins and The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald.)
Let’s look at the seven elements of fiction in The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins, a young adult (YA) dystopian novel.
Character: The protagonist is Katniss Everdeen, who competes in the Hunger Games. Other major characters include her love interest Peeta Mellark, her younger sister Primrose Everdeen, and the other contestants in the Hunger Games.
Plot: The plot kicks off when Katniss volunteers for the Hunger Games to protect her sister. The rest of the plot follows Katniss training for and competing in the Games.
Setting: The setting is the nation of Panem. Specific settings include District 12, the impoverished district where Katniss grew up; the glittering Capitol, where the rich citizens live in blissful ignorance; and the arena, where the Games take place.
Theme: The themes of the story include power and oppression, suffering as entertainment, and inequality.
Point of View: Katniss is the first-person narrator.
Conflict: The primary conflict is character vs character when Katniss and the other tributes battle one another. Other forms of conflict are present as well, such as the character vs society conflict when Katniss confronts the dystopian society she lives in.
Tone: The writing style of the book is fast-paced and suspenseful, often evoking fear and excitement, as Katniss tells the reader about the life-and-death situations she’s experiencing.
Now let’s look at the seven elements of fiction in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a classic work of literary fiction.
Character: The protagonist is Jay Gatsby, the Great Gatsby himself. Other key characters include his friend Nick Carraway, his love interest Daisy Buchanan, and Daisy’s husband Tom Buchanan.
Plot: The plot follows Jay Gatsby as he throws lavish parties in an attempt to win back Daisy, the love of his life. Over the course of the story, he courts her and nearly convinces her to leave her husband for him, but ultimately loses his life as a result of his efforts.
Setting: The setting is New York in the 1920s during the Jazz Age. Specific settings include West Egg, East Egg, the valley of ashes, and New York City.
Theme: The themes of the story include the American Dream, love and marriage, and dissatisfaction with life in spite of wealth and status.
Point of View: The book is written in the first person from Nick’s point of view. This POV is sometimes called first-person witness, since the narrator isn’t the same person as the protagonist.
Conflict: The primary conflict is character vs self conflict as Gatsby tries to achieve the American Dream and prove to Daisy he’s a great man. There’s also character vs character conflict between Gatsby and the other characters.
Tone: The tone of the book is serious and reflective while Nick reflects on Gatsby’s story and relays it to the reader.
Elements of Fiction: Conclusion
Now you know the key elements that make a story work! Here’s a quick recap:
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Characters
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Plot
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Setting
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Theme
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Point of view
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Conflict
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Tone
What do these elements look like in your favorite stories? Let us know in the comments.
Some Examples of Fiction
1. Louisa May Alcott, Little Women
Alcott’s 1868 novel is a classic work of literary fiction that follows the lives and loves of the four March sisters: Jo, Meg, Beth, and Amy. It is a coming-of-age story focusing on the sisters’ evolution from girlhood to young womanhood as they try to find their respective places in the world. Little Women is a fictionalized version of Alcott’s own life and her relationship with her sisters.
2. Madeleine L’Engle, A Wrinkle in Time
This work is a beloved, award-winning science fiction novel. It tells the story of high schooler Meg Murry, who embarks on an epic adventure through time and space. Her younger brother Charles Wallace and her friend Calvin O’Keefe accompany her on a quest to rescue Meg and Charles Wallace’s scientist father from an evil being holding him captive on another planet. And, in the process, they end up saving the world.
3. Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon
Morrison’s 1977 work of literary fiction recounts the life and death of Macon “Milkman” Dead III. Milkman is a Black man living in Michigan, estranged from his family, his history, and himself. Over the course of 30-plus years, his best friend Guitar and his aunt Pilate help him understand and embrace his identity and his worth. Morrison infuses Milkman’s story with magical realism and African American folklore.
4. Stephen King, Carrie
A horror novel for the ages, King’s work centers on 16-year-old Carrie White, whose story unfolds through fictional letters, newspaper articles, and magazine stories. Raised by a religious-authoritarian mother, Carrie is a misfit at school and the target of merciless bullies. Carrie is also telekinetic, possessing the power to move anything with her mind. She ultimately uses this power to exact a bloody revenge at the school prom, getting back at those who bullied her, the community that forsook her, and, finally, the mother who despised her.
5. Tommy Orange, There There
Orange’s 2018 work of literary fiction chronicles a community of Oakland, California, Native Americans as they prepare and gather for an urban powwow. The narrative illuminates the experiences of Native Americans living in large metropolitan cities and how these environments shape their lives, relationships, and identities. The characters confront a number of challenges stemming from their painful and complex history―including alcoholism and drug addiction, fetal alcohol syndrome, mental illness, and unemployment―yet they are also unique inheritors of a profound and beautiful spirituality and purpose. Eventually, the characters assemble at the powwow, where a shocking crime occurs that alters their lives forever.
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Backstrap weavingBackstrap weaving
The backstrap loom demonstrates the basic principles of weaving used with any kind of loom. You can make a variety of useful and decorative fabrics with it: scarves, place mats, wall hangings, runners, pillow covers, ties, footstool covers, belts, etc. All can be as creative and skillfully done as fabrics woven on expensive floor looms.
Our directions will show you how to build a 20-inch rigid heddle. We have chosen this size because it is wide enough for fairly ambitious projects while still permitting fairly quick construction and threading. You can weave narrower fabrics with a 20-inch heddle by threading it only to the width you desire using the middle of the he'ddle. Or you can adapt these directions to make a heddle as narrow as 5-10 inches, or as wide as 28-30 inches; much over 30 inches becomes cumbersome to work with. As you become proficient in weaving you will probably want to make several heddles of different widths. (Huldah Curl, Lila Nelson, Laurel Hansen Stanell.)
[ Modified: Sunday, 18 February 2024, 4:45 PM ]
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INTRODUCTION
In the early times, there were no records regarding the creation of Lubon as separated Barangay. Records show though that Lubon was already a barangay of the municipality of Kayan, then the seat of the munipical government. It was in 1959 that Tadian becam the Municipio. On the June 25, 1963, by virtue of executive order No. 42, Tadian became a regular municipality with Lubon as one of its Barangay.
The first puroks were Lamagan, Dupagan, Soni, Guedayan, Tocucan. Then Bayngan and Kebasan were formed. When the Spaniards left, the purok Tampugo was created. It was in the early 1950’s that the purok of Bilig was created. Few years after, Baranggay Lubon is one of the luckiest beneficiaries of the DSWD core shelter housing project on year 2012 and the place they constructed the houses was named Toon, so after that Toon was not already a “pagsalolongan” but it was already became a one Purok in the barangay.
There are different cultural beliefs and practice in lubon and some examples of this are:The language practices are “Inayan” and “Ub-ubo”. In “Inayan”, it is what they say to warn the people in doing such a bad actions or deeds while in “Ub-ubo” they gather together and help each other. They have also the belief which is the opening of the jar, this is a belief that there is a correct way in opening a jar to avoid bad events that will happen. Their rituals are “Abat d natey” and “Begnas”. In “Abat d natey”, if there is a wake, they should not go to fields to show their respect while in “Begnas”, they are doing this when the society needs to thanks God for any important activities the society and community faces speacially planting and harvesting in the fields.. Aside from the said cultures above, there is also the works of arts which are the “inabel” and “Dap-ay”. In “Inabel”, there are different weave designs, patterns and styles of their cultural wears like “gabey” and “wanes” and thso patterns, designs and styles have different meaning, while in “Dap-ay”, this is a small open house that made of wood and “dap owan” that surrounded with stones where old men sit comforatable. The society will gather and conducted rituals, they also use the Dap-ay as there meeting place and standby area.
Opening a Jar of tapey is a ritualistic ceremony performed on special occasions, gathering families and even marking the translation of a significant life , event or the passing of an elder. The jar is carefully sealed, revealing the contents within, which include rice wine and sacred relies.this act is seen as a spiritual connection between the living and the departed, as well as a means of invoking blessings and protection from the ancestors or upon the community. It exemplifies the profound respect for the past.the importance of continuity, and the enduring beliefs that shape the unique cultural tapestry of Lubon.
Opening a jar of tapey is very uncommon belief in Lubon, so that researchers wants to know and give a documentation with this cultural practice and beliefs, where they aims to understand the donts and do’es in opening a jar of tapey and also to give information to the generations who does’nt know the bad effects of this beliefs if they ignore the correct way of opening it and lastly, to identify the correct way of opening the jar of tapey.
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION
A captivating tradition known as “opening the jar” is deeply interwined with the beliefs and cultural heritage of its indigenous peoples. This sacred tradition passed down through generations, carries with an air of profound reverence and mystery. This jar is more than just a vessel; it is a symbol of history,spirituaaly and intercorrectness. This age old practice revolves around a beautifully crafted, often heirloom jar, which is symbolic of a family’s history and prosperity.
To the people of Lubon, opening a jar of Tapey is not just a physical act, but a spiritual one, binding them to the past, present and future and strengthening the bonds that tie them to their ancient traditions.
[ Modified: Sunday, 18 February 2024, 4:46 PM ]
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Cured meat, a time-honored tradition in many cultures, plays a vital role in global culinary heritage. An example of this is Spain’s “chorizo,” traditionally prepared by blending ground pork with paprika and other spices, then allowing it to ferment and dry for several week, used in a wide range of Spanish dishes such as paella and tapas. Italy’s “prosciutto,” coming various regional varieties such as Prosciutto di Parma and Prosciutto di San Daniele, involving the process of salting, air-drying, and curing the hind legs of pigs for an extended period. Italian prosciutto is often enjoyed thinly sliced, either on its own or as a key ingredient in dishes like antipasto and pizza, making it an integral part of Italian cuisine appreciated world-wide.
Within the Philippines, another notable example of cured meat is the “tapa.” Tapa is a popular Filipino breakfast dish consisting of thinly sliced, cured, and air-dried beef, traditionally marinated in a mixture of garlic, soy sauce, and various seasonings. The marinated beef is then sun-dried to achieve the desired texture. This cured meat is beloved for its sweet-savory flavor and chewy texture, often served with garlic fried rice and fried eggs in a meal known as “Tapsilog.” It is a staple of Filipino breakfasts and demonstrates the nation’s diverse culinary heritage.
The global and national appeal of these products has led to a rich diversity of techniques and flavors, and it is within this global and national context that the cured meat of the Igorot people of the Philippines, known as “etag,” holds particular interest.
In the locality, “etag” has been a staple for a number of local dishes such as “pinikpikan” and “bukel.” “Etag” involves methods of drying or smoking meat typically from the hind legs or the belly of pigs that has been coated with salt. This meat is then stored in a dry container and placed somewhere dark. “Etag” can be consumed after several weeks and can even last for months. This not only serves as a source of sustenance but also a symbol of communal gatherings, particularly during rituals and festivities. Local economies are also linked to the production and sale of “etag,” making it an important aspect in the lives of many Igorot families. Understanding the local production, consumption, and cultural significance of “etag” is essential for preserving and promoting this treasured culinary tradition among the Igorot people.
For this study, the researchers aim to learn about the making of “etag” and provide a source for this culinary heritage for future generations.
Members: Ardez Nikitha S. Bincula, Regine C. Keg-ay
[ Modified: Sunday, 18 February 2024, 4:46 PM ]
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To create your gmail (Google Mail) account, you need the following:
1. An existing e-mail account or a phone number
2. A computer
3. An internet connection (OF COURSE!!!)
Now that you have the aforementioned needed, you can now do the following steps:
Step 1. Right click then click open link in new tab: mail.google.com to open the google mail webpage.
Step 2. Now that you have the log-in page of Gmail, click More Options then click Create Account.
Step 3. Fill in the needed information: Name (First and Last), Username (added with @gmail.com, this will be your email address), Create a password, Confirm your password (encode again the password), Birthday (Month, Date and Year), Gender (Male or Female), Mobile Phone, then your current email address (your Yahoo acount), then click Next Step.
Step 4. Under Privacy Terms, click arrow down again and again until the lowest portion of the page then Click I Agree.
Step 5. Your account will then need verification. Click the bullet Text Message to send the verification code as a text message. Click continue.
Step 6. Open your phone to view sent verification code. This will take several minutes before the code will be sent. PATIENCE IS VIRTUE
Step 7. Enter verification code and click continue. You are now ONE STEP TO GO for your Gmail account.
Step 8. You now have your own personal Gmail Account. Be acquainted with the features of Gmail by exploring it. Enjoy!!
[ Modified: Sunday, 24 September 2023, 11:28 AM ]
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